This rapidly evolving field extends classical discrete calculus by introducing non-integer, or fractional, orders of difference operators. Such an approach is particularly well suited to modelling ...

Machines and processes are controlled using many strategies, from simple ladder logic to custom algorithms for specialized process control, but proportional-integral-derivative (PID) is the most ...

Ordinary differential equations (ODEs) and difference equations serve as complementary tools in the mathematical modelling of processes evolving in continuous and discrete time respectively. Together ...